Scum Manifesto Full Pdf Reader

• • • Second-wave feminism is a period of activity and thought that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. Whereas focused mainly on and overturning legal obstacles to gender ( e.g., and ), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace,, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to and issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Feminist-owned business such as bookstores, credit unions, and restaurants were among the key meeting spaces and economic engines of the movement.

He states, 'Like other feminist satires, the 'SCUM Manifesto' attempts to politicize women by attacking particular masculine myths that are embedded in American popular culture.' He adds, 'As a work of satire, the 'SCUM Manifesto' is rhetorically effective in that it deconstructs the reader's received notions of masculinity and.

Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of in the early 1990s. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Overview [ ] The second wave of feminism in North America came as a delayed reaction against the renewed domesticity of women after World War II: the late 1940s post-war boom, which was an era characterized by an unprecedented economic growth, a, a move to family-oriented suburbs, and the ideal of companionate marriages. This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the time; for example television shows such as and idealized domesticity.

Some important events laid the groundwork for the second wave. French writer had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as 'other' in the patriarchal society. She went on to conclude in her 1949 treatise that male-centered ideology was being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the 'second sex'. This book was translated from French to English (with some of its text excised) and published in America in 1953. In 1960 the approved the, which was made available in 1961. This made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant. External video, 59:07, 1962., chair of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, interviews President, Secretary of Labor and others, The administration of made women's rights a key issue of the, and named women (such as ) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.

Kennedy also established a, chaired by and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and ), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants. There were other actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, 50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk. In 1963, influenced by, wrote the bestselling book.

Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home limited their possibilities and wasted potential. She had helped conduct a very important survey using her old classmates from Smith College. This survey revealed that the women who played a role at home and the work force were more satisfied with their life compared to the women who stayed home. The women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these unhappy women had emerged themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home. Friedan described this as 'The Problem That Has No Name'. The perfect image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.

This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism. Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed. The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when 'Mother of the Movement' published, and President 's released its report on gender inequality. The report revealed, that there was gender inequality, but also recommended changing it by giving paid maternity leave, greater access to education, and help with child care, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially ), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations.

Friedan was referencing a 'movement' as early as 1964. The movement grew with legal victories such as the,, and the ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president. Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.

Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members, many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class. Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.

In 1963, freelance journalist gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a waitress at the was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of. In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that 'there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume'.

By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists. Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, and the (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), (1970, health and family planning), the (1974), the, the outlawing of (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 ), and the legalization of (although not legalized in all states until 2010 ), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases such as of 1971 and of 1973.

However, the changing of social attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success of the women's movement. In January 2013, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the longtime ban on women serving in US military combat roles had been lifted. The US Department of Defense plans to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016. Second-wave feminism also affected other movements, such as the civil rights movement and the student's rights movement, as women sought equality within them.

In 1965 and published 'Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo' detailing women's inequality within the civil rights organization. In June 1967 attended a 'free school' course on women at the University of Chicago led by and. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming (NCNP), to be held over Labor Day weekend 1967 in Chicago. At that conference a woman's caucus was formed, and it (led by Freeman and ) tried to present its own demands to the plenary session. However, the women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed. When the National Conference for New Politics Director Willam F.

Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about the American Indian, five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium to demand to know why. But Willam F. Pepper patted Firestone on the head and said, 'Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than ', or possibly, 'Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems.' Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the 'free school' course and the women's workshop at the conference; this became the first Chicago women's liberation group.

It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side. After a few months Freeman started a newsletter which she called Voice of the women's liberation movement. It circulated all over the country (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the.

In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and '[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?' ' (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism, 1971, pg. After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group.

By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the 'boys' clubs' such as, the,, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the, and illegalizing gender discrimination. However, in 1982 adding the to the failed, having been ratified by only 35 states, leaving it three states short of ratification. Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the ratification of the and Nixon's veto of the (which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system) the only major legislative defeats. Efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment have continued. Ten states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex, and most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Amendment. Furthermore, many women's groups are still active and are major political forces. As of 2011, more women earn than men, half of the presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men.

The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time, although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the. Whether this is due to discrimination is very hotly disputed, however economists and sociologists have provided evidence to that effect.

Second-wave feminism in the U.S. Download Cisco Router Ios Image Gns3 Labs here. Coincided in the early 1980s with the feminist sex wars and was overlapped by in the early 1990s.

The second wave of the feminist movement also marks the emergence of as a legitimate field of study. In 1970 San Diego State University was the first university in the United States to offer a selection of women's studies courses. View on popular culture [ ] Second-wave feminists viewed popular culture as sexist, and created pop culture of their own to counteract this. Australian artist 's song ' played a large role in popular culture and became a feminist anthem; Reddy came to be known as a 'feminist ' or a 'feminist icon'. A few weeks after 'I Am Woman' entered the charts, radio stations refused to play it.

Helen Reddy then began performing the song on numerous television variety shows. As the song gained popularity, women began calling radio stations and requesting to hear 'I Am Woman' played.

The song re-entered the charts and reached number one in December 1972. 'One project of second wave feminism was to create 'positive' images of women, to act as a counterweight to the dominant images circulating in popular culture and to raise women's consciousness of their oppressions.' 'I Am Woman' [ ] In 1972, Helen Reddy released the single 'I Am Woman'. Reddy told interviewers that the song was a 'song of pride about being a woman'.

After entering the Billboard Top 100, the song soon fell off the charts because radio stations refused to play it. Music critics and radio stations believed the song represented 'all that is silly in the Women's Lib Movement'. Reddy began performing the song on different variety shows. As the song became more popular, women called into radio stations and demanded that they play the song. After these calls, radio stations began playing the song and 'I Am Woman' quickly climbed the Billboard Top 100 to number one. 'I Am Woman' also became a protest song that women sang at rallies and protests where they demanded equal rights. Businesses [ ] Feminist activists have established a range of, including women's bookstores, feminist credit unions, feminist presses, feminist mail-order catalogs, feminist restaurants, and feminist record labels.

These businesses flourished as part of the second and third waves of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Olivia Records [ ] In 1973, a group of five feminists created the first women's owned-and-operated record label, called Olivia Records. They created the record label because they were frustrated that major labels were slow to add female artists to their rosters. One of Olivia's founders, Judy Dlugacz, said that, 'It was a chance to create opportunities for women artists within an industry which at that time had few'.

Initially, they had a budget of $4,000, and relied on donations to keep Olivia Records alive. With these donations, Olivia Records created their first LP, an album of feminist songs entitled I Know You Know. The record label originally relied on volunteers and feminist bookstores to distribute their records, but after a few years their records began to be sold in mainstream record stores.

Olivia Records was so successful that the company relocated from Washington D.C. To Los Angeles in 1975. Olivia Records released several records and albums, and their popularity grew. As their popularity grew, an alternative, specialized music industry grew around it. This type of music was initially referred to as 'lesbian music' but came to be known as 'women's music'. However, although Olivia Records was initially meant for women, in the 1980s it tried to move away from that stereotype and encouraged men to listen to their music as well.

Women's music [ ] Women's music consisted of female musicians combined music with politics to express feminist ideals. Cities throughout the United States began to hold Women's Music Festivals, all consisting of female artists singing their own songs about personal experiences. The first Women's Music Festival was held in 1974 at the University of Illinois. In 1979, Michigan held a Women's Music Festival that attracted 10,000 people from across America. These festivals encouraged already-famous female singers, such as Laura Nyro and Ellen McIllwaine, to begin writing and producing their own songs instead of going through a major record label.

Many females began performing hard rock music, a traditionally male-dominated genre. One of the most successful examples included the sisters Ann and Nancy Wilson, who formed the famous hard rock band Heart.

Beginning and conscious raising [ ] The beginnings of second-wave feminism can be studied by looking at the two branches that the movement formed in: the and the radical feminists. The liberal feminists, led by figures such as and advocated for federal legislation to be passed that would promote and enhance the personal and professional lives of women. On the other hand, radical feminists, such as and, adopted the skills and lessons that they had learned from their work with civil rights organizations such as the and and created a platform to speak on the violent and sexist issues women faced while working with the larger. The liberal feminist movement [ ] After being removed from the workforce, by either personal or social pressures, many women in the post-war America returned to the home or were placed into female only jobs in the service sector. After the publication of Friedan's The Feminine Mystique in 1963, many women connected to the feeling of isolation and dissatisfaction that the book detailed. The book itself, however, was not a call to action, but rather a plea for self-realization and conscious raising among middle-class women throughout America. Many of these women organized to form the in 1966, whose 'Statement of Purpose' declared that the right women had to equality was one small part of the nationwide civil rights revolution that was happening during the 1960s.

The radical feminist movement [ ] Women who favored collectively spoke of being forced to remain silent and obedient to male leaders in organizations. They spoke out about how they were not only told to do clerical work such as stuffing envelopes and typing speeches, but there was also an expectation for them to sleep with the male activists that they worked with. While these acts of sexual harassment took place, the young women were neglected their right to have their own needs and desires recognized by their male cohorts. Many radical feminists had learned from these organizations how to think radically about their self-worth and importance, and applied these lessons in the relationships they had with each other. Social changes [ ] Use of birth control [ ] Finding a need to talk about the advantage of the passing their approval for the use of in 1960, liberal feminists took action in creating panels and workshops with the goal to promote conscious raising among sexually active women. These workshops also brought attention to issues such as venereal diseases and safe abortion.

Radical feminists also joined this push to raise awareness among sexually active women. While supporting the 'Free Love Movement' of the late 1960s and early 1970s, young women on college campuses distributed pamphlets on birth control, sexual diseases, abortion, and cohabitation. While white women were concerned with obtaining birth control for all, women of color were at risk of sterilization because of these same medical and social advances: 'Native American, African American, and Latina groups documented and publicized sterilization abuses in their communities in the 1960s and 70s, showing that women had been sterilized without their knowledge or consent. In the 1970s, a group of women. Founded the Committee to End Sterilization Abuse (CESA) to stop this racist population control policy begun by the federal government in the 1940s – a policy that had resulted in the sterilization of over one-third of all women of child-bearing age in Puerto Rico.' Domestic violence and sexual harassment [ ] The second-wave feminist movement also took a strong stance against physical violence and sexual assault in both the home and the workplace.

In 1968, successfully lobbied the to pass an amendment to Title VII of the, which prevented discrimination based on sex in the workplace. This attention to women's rights in the workplace also prompted the EEOC to add sexual harassment to its 'Guidelines on Discrimination', therefore giving women the right to report their bosses and coworkers for acts of sexual assault. Domestic violence, such as battery and rape, were rampant in post-war America. Women were often abused as a result of daily frustration in their husband's lives, and as late as 1975 domestic battery and rape were both socially acceptable and legal as women were seen to be the possessions of their husbands. Because of activists in the second-wave feminist movement, and the local law enforcement agencies that they worked with, by 1982 three hundred shelters and forty-eight state coalitions had been established to provide protection and services for women who had been abused by male figures in their lives. Timeline [ ] 1961 [ ] • The report of the [American] found discrimination against women in every aspect of American life and outlined plans to achieve equality.

Specific recommendations for women in the workplace included fair hiring practices, paid, and affordable. Author of • Twenty years after it was first proposed, the became law in the U.S., and it established equality of pay for men and women performing equal work. However, it did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, or professionals. In 1972, Congress enacted the Educational Amendments of 1972, which (among other things) amended the to expand the coverage of the Equal Pay Act to these employees, by excluding the Equal Pay Act from the professional workers exemption of the Fair Labor Standards Act. [ ] • 's was published, became a best-seller, and laid the groundwork for the second-wave feminist movement in the U.S. • presented 'Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest Proposal' at the conference. 1964 [ ] • of the became law in the U.S., and it barred employment discrimination on account of sex, race, etc.

By private employers, employment agencies, and unions. • The [U.S.] was established; in its first five years, 50,000 complaints of gender discrimination were received.

• Haven House, the first 'modern' women's shelter in the world, opened in. 1965 [ ] • Casey Hayden and published 'Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo', detailing women's inequality within the civil rights organization. Supreme Court case struck down the only remaining state law banning the use of by married couples. • The case Weeks v. Southern Bell marked a major triumph in the fight against restrictive labor laws and company regulations on the hours and conditions of women's work in the U.S., opening many previously male-only jobs to women. • The 'Woman Question' was raised for the first time at a (SDS) conference.

• commissioners were appointed to enforce the. Among them there was only one woman,, a future president of the. • According to, in American Speech (Vol. 1, Spring 1985), the term 'sexism' was most likely coined on November 18, 1965, by during the 'Student-Faculty Forum'. The term appears in Leet's forum contribution titled 'Women and the Undergraduate', in which she defines it by comparing it to racism, saying in part, 'When you arguethat since fewer women write good poetry this justifies their total exclusion, you are taking a position analogous to that of the racist—I might call you in this case a 'sexist'.

Both the racist and the sexist are acting as if all that has happened had never happened, and both of them are making decisions and coming to conclusions about someone's value by referring to factors which are in both cases irrelevant.' 1966 [ ] • Twenty-eight women, among them, founded the (NOW) to function as a for women. Betty Friedan became its first. The group is now one of the largest women's groups in the U.S.

And pursues its goals through extensive legislative lobbying, litigation, and public demonstrations. • Barbara Jordan was elected to the Texas Senate. She was the first African-American woman in the Texas legislature. • Flight attendants filed Title VII complaints about being forced to quit when they married, got pregnant or reached age 35. 1967 [ ] • Due to a new law, abortion in Britain was made legal under certain criteria and with medical supervision. • American feminist wrote and published.

• 11375 expanded 's 1965 policy to cover discrimination based on sex, resulting in federal agencies and contractors taking active measures to ensure that all women as well as minorities have access to educational and employment opportunities equal to white males. • Women's liberation groups sprang up all over America. • makes the cover of magazine • NOW began petitioning the EEOC to end sex-segregated want ads and adopted a for Women. • Senator introduced the in the U.S. • was formed by and. • organized American ' groups.

• The [American] was formed. 1968 [ ] • led members of to the of 1968, which they decried as sexist and. • The first American national gathering of women's liberation activists was held in, a suburb of.

• The EEOC issued revised guidelines on sex discrimination, making it clear that the widespread practice of publishing 'help wanted' advertisements that use 'male' and 'female' column headings violates Title VII. • New York feminists buried a dummy of 'Traditional Womanhood' at the all-women's Brigade demonstration against the in Washington, D.C. • For the first time, feminists used the slogan 'Sisterhood is Powerful.' • The first public speakout against laws was held in. • Notes from the First Year, a women's liberation theoretical journal, was published by New York Radical Women.

• NOW celebrated with the slogan 'Rights, Not Roses'. •, professor of theology at, published a scathing criticism of the 's view and treatment of women entitled 'The Church and the Second Sex.'

• 850 sewing machinists at in, which is in Britain, went on for equal pay and against sex discrimination. This ultimately led to the passing of the, the first legislation in the United Kingdom aimed at ending pay discrimination between men and women.

• Journalist Martha Lear coins the terms 'first-wave' and 'second-wave' feminism in a article entitled • According to, the first time the term 'sexism' appeared in print was in 's speech 'On Being Born Female', which was published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6). In this speech she said in part, 'There is recognition abroad that we are in many ways a sexist country. Sexism is judging people by their sex when sex doesn't matter. Sexism is intended to rhyme with racism.' 1969 [ ] • The American organization organized.

• Members of Redstockings disrupted a hearing on abortion laws of the New York Legislature when the panel of witnesses turned out to be 14 men and a nun. The group demanded repeal, not reform, of laws restricting abortion.

•, then called The National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws (NARAL), was founded. • adopted a, allowing couples to divorce by mutual consent. It was the first state to do so; by 2010 every state had adopted a similar law. Legislation was also passed regarding equal division of common property. A Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970 1970 [ ] • American feminist published her book,. • Australian feminist published her book,.

Court of Appeals ruled jobs held by men and women must be 'substantially equal' but not 'identical' to fall under the protection of the Equal Pay Act, and that it is therefore illegal for employers to change the job titles of women workers in order to pay them less than men. • edited by the American feminist, is published. • The American women's health book was first published as a newsprint booklet for 35 cents. • The Canadian parliament's Royal Commission on the Status of Women (established 1967) produced its report, leading to the establishment of the National Action Committee on the Status of Women. • A sit-in protested ' as sexist.

• The was founded. • feminists founded. • In, ('Women's Revolt') formed and published a manifesto. • American feminist published The Black Woman. • On August 26, 1970, the 50th anniversary of woman suffrage in the U.S., tens of thousands of women across the nation participated in the, organized by Betty Friedan and thought up by to demand equal rights. • Feminist leader was elected to the U.S.

Congress, famously declaring 'A woman's place is in the '. • vetoed the, which would have established federally funded centers throughout the U.S. • The met to discuss the status of women in unions. It endorsed the ERA and opposed state protective legislation. • The in America and the allowed women to be ordained. Congress enacted of the Public Health Service Act, the only American federal program—then and now—devoted solely to the provision of family planning services nationwide. • The first national meeting of the women's liberation movement in Britain took place.

• expanded the platform to include women's rights following the death of her husband,. She previously served as a delegate to the in 1962. • The became law in the United Kingdom, although it did not take effect until 1975. • The contest in London was disrupted by feminist protesters armed with flour bombs, stink bombs, and water pistols. 1971 [ ] • Switzerland allowed women to vote in national elections.

However, some cantons did not allow women to vote in local elections until 1994. • Jane O'Reilly's article 'The Housewife's Moment of Truth' was published in the first edition of Ms. Convert Chk File To Jpg Software Downloads.

Magazine, which appeared as an insert to New York Magazine. The O'Reilly article introduced the idea of 'Click!,' which O'Reilly described as the following: 'The women in the group looked at her, looked at each other, and. A moment of truth. The shock of recognition.

Instant sisterhood. Those clicks are coming faster and faster. They were nearly audible last summer, which was a very angry summer for American women.

Not redneck-angry from screaming because we are so frustrated and unfulfilled-angry, but clicking-things-into-place-angry, because we have suddenly and shockingly perceived the basic disorder in what has been believed to be the natural order of things.' • Linda Nochlin's essay ' was published in ARTnews. This essay is largely considered a pioneering text of the movement. • The first women's liberation march in London occurred. • In the U.S.

Supreme Court Case, for the first time since the Fourteenth Amendment went into effect in 1868, the Court struck down a state law on the ground that it discriminated against women in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of that amendment. The law in question—enacted in Idaho in 1864—required that when the father and mother of a deceased person both sought appointment as administrator of the estate, the man had to be preferred over the woman.

• The was founded in New York. It was one of the first feminist theater groups formed to write and produce plays about women's issues and to provide work experience in theatrical professions which had been dominated by men.

• The song ' was published. It was a popular song performed by Australian singer, which became an enduring anthem for the women's liberation movement. • has been August 26 in America since 1971. This resolution was passed in 1971 designating August 26 of each year as Women's Equality Day: The full text of the resolution reads. Symbol used for signs and buttons by ERA opponents • The ruled in that laws prohibiting abortion are unconstitutional.

States are constitutionally allowed to place regulations on abortion which fall short of prohibition after the first trimester. Supreme Court held that sex-segregated help wanted ads are illegal in, 413 U.S. • AT&T agreed to end discrimination in women's salaries and to pay retroactive compensation to women employees. • The [American] National Black Feminist Organization was formed. • The term ' was used in 1973 in 'Saturn's Rings', a report authored by Mary Rowe to the then President and Chancellor of MIT about various forms of gender issues. Rowe has stated that she believes she was not the first to use the term, since sexual harassment was being discussed in women's groups in Massachusetts in the early 1970s, but that MIT may have been the first or one of the first large organizations to discuss the topic (in the MIT Academic Council), and to develop relevant policies and procedures. MIT at the time also recognized the injuries caused by racial harassment and the harassment of women of color which may be both racial and sexual.

1974 [ ] • Five all-male colleges at University of Oxford opened admissions to women. • Contraception became free for women in the United Kingdom. •, a British feminist press, was set up by the publisher. Its first title, Life As We Have Known It, was published in 1975. • The was set up to unite battered women's shelters in Britain. • The became law in the U.S.

It prohibits discrimination in consumer credit practices on the basis of sex, race, marital status, religion, national origin, age, or receipt of public assistance. • In, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that employers cannot justify paying women lower wages because that is what they traditionally received under the 'going market rate.' A wage differential occurring 'simply because men would not work at the low rates paid women' is unacceptable. First Lady was pro-choice. A moderate, Ford lobbied to ratify the ERA, earning the ire of, who dub her 'No Lady'.

• The was founded. • The American Coalition of Labor Union Women was founded. • The (WEEA) of 1974 was enacted in 1974 to promote educational equity for American girls and women, including those who suffer multiple discrimination based on gender and on race, ethnicity, national origin, disability, or age, and to provide funds to help education agencies and institutions meet the requirements of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. • founded the first feminist business in the United States,, in in 1974.

Was also the first woman-owned and woman-operated business in America. 1975 [ ] • The took effect in the UK. • The became law in the UK, making it illegal to discriminate against women in education, recruitment, and advertising.

• The became law in the UK, introducing statutory maternity provision and making it illegal to fire a woman because she is pregnant. • In, the U.S. Supreme Court held that women could not be excluded from a venire, or, on the basis of having to register for jury duty, thus overturning, the 1961 case that had allowed such a practice. • The sponsored the First International Conference on Women in. Federal employees' salaries could be garnished for child support and alimony.

•, chairwoman of NOW's Older Women Task Force, coined the phrase 'displaced homemaker'. • American feminist published the landmark book, about rape. She later became one of 's 'Women of the Year' (see below).

• NOW sponsored 'Alice Doesn't' Day, asking women across the country to go on strike for one day. •, who was raped by a guard while in, was of murdering her offender. The case established a precedent in America for killing as against rape.

• In, the first women's bank opened. • The opened its military academies to women. • declared: '[F]eminism has transcended the feminist movement. In 1975 the women's drive penetrated every layer of society, matured beyond ideology to a new status of general—and sometimes unconscious—acceptance.' The award goes to American Women, celebrating the successes of the feminist movement.

• The came into effect in the UK (besides Northern Ireland, where it came into effect in 1976) to oversee the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts. • The first ' march was held. It was held in in October 1975, after the murder of a microbiologist, Susan Alexander Speeth, who was stabbed to death while walking home alone. 1976 [ ] • The came into effect in Northern Ireland to oversee the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts. • The Domestic Violence Act became law in Britain, enabling women to obtain a court order against their violent husband or partner.

• The first marital rape law was enacted in, making it illegal for a husband to rape his wife. • Congresswoman of, the first African-American congresswoman to come from the Deep South and the first woman ever elected to the Texas Senate, who had received widespread recognition as a key member of the during 's impeachment, delivered the to the. She was the first black person and first woman to address the convention as a keynote speaker, declaring that 'My presence here. Is one additional bit of evidence that the American dream need not forever be deferred'. • The was formed for women of and descent. • A ' march was held in Belgium in March 1976 by the women attending the.

• In the state of, is an established state holiday, which was enacted into law April 15, 1976, from the 1975 Laws of Wisconsin, Chapter 307, section 20. It is also a state holiday in West Virginia and Florida. 1977 [ ] • The was passed, prohibiting discrimination based on characteristics including sex and sexual orientation, and requiring 'equal pay for work of equal value'. • In the U.S., the first in a century was held in. Women from all over the country, 20,000 in all, gathered to pass a National Plan of Action. • The National Association of Cuban-American Women was established. • The first women pilots of the graduated.

• was formalized as an annual event by the U.N. General Assembly. • The first Rape Crisis Centre opened in London. • In a landmark ruling, the Washington Supreme Court, sitting, declared that was entitled to have a jury consider her actions in the light of her 'perceptions of the situation, including those perceptions which were the product of our nation's long and unfortunate history of sex discrimination'. The ruling was the first in America recognizing the particular legal problems of women who defend themselves or their children from male attackers, and was again affirmed by the Washington Supreme Court in denying the prosecutor's petition for rehearing in 1979. Before the Wanrow decision, standard jury instructions asked what a 'reasonably prudent man' would have done, even if the accused was a woman; the Wanrow decision set a precedent that when a woman is tried in a criminal trial the juries should ask 'what a reasonably prudent woman similarly situated would have done.'

1978 [ ] • The decision, in which Rideout was acquitted of raping his wife, led to many American states allowing prosecution for marital and cohabitation rape. • The banned employment discrimination against pregnant women in the U.S., stating a woman cannot be fired or denied a job or a promotion because she is or may become pregnant, nor can she be forced to take a pregnancy leave if she is willing and able to work.

• The Equal Rights Amendment's deadline arrived with the ERA still three states short of ratification; there was a successful bill to extend the ERA's deadline to 1982, but it was still not ratified by then. 1979 [ ] • became the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

• The feminist art piece, by American feminist artist, was first put on display at the. 357 (1979), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that the exemption on request of women from jury service under Missouri law, resulting in an average of less than 15% women on jury venires in the forum county, violated the 'fair-cross-section' requirement of the Sixth Amendment as made applicable to the States by the Fourteenth. The 1980s [ ] • In the U.S., the early 1980s were marked by the end of the second wave and the beginning of the.

Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sex wars over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of in the early 1990s. • In the 1980s the second wave spread to and to. • The was enacted by the of 1982, and it declares (among other things), '15. (1) Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. (2) Subsection (1) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.28. Notwithstanding anything in this Charter, the rights and freedoms referred to in it are guaranteed equally to male and female persons.'

• In 1983, the women's minister of France,, passed a law obliging all companies with more than 50 employees to carry out a comparative salary survey between men and women. • The Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law of 1985, effective in April 1986, prohibits gender discrimination with respect to recruitment, hiring, promotion, training, and job assignment.

• The formed in the early 1980s as a response to sexism and racism in the art world. Known for their protest art and their usage of gorilla masks to remain anonymous, the group actively calls out issues within the contemporary art world.

Education [ ] Title IX [ ]. Main article: Coeducation [ ] One debate which developed in the during this time period revolved around the question of. Most adopted coeducation, often by merging with. In addition, some women's colleges adopted coeducation, while others maintained a single-sex student body.

Seven Sisters Colleges [ ] Two of the made transitions during and after the 1960s. The first,, merged with. Beginning in 1963, students at Radcliffe received Harvard diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard and joint commencement exercises began in 1970. The same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students experimentally and in 1972 full co-residence was instituted.

The departments of of both schools merged shortly thereafter. In 1977, Harvard and Radcliffe signed an agreement which put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. In 1999 Radcliffe College was dissolved and Harvard University assumed full responsibility over the affairs of female undergraduates.

Radcliffe is now the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study in at Harvard University. The second,, declined an offer to merge with and instead became coeducational in 1969. The remaining Seven Sisters decided against coeducation. Engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of over the issue of coeducation. On November 6, 1971, 'after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision.'

Also made a similar decision in 1971. In 1969, and (then all male) developed a system of sharing residential colleges.

When Haverford became coeducational in 1980, Bryn Mawr discussed the possibly of coeducation as well, but decided against it. In 1983, began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with for a merger along the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, but it continues to be independently governed). Also decided against coeducation during this time. Mississippi University for Women [ ] In 1982, in a 5–4 decision, the ruled in that the would be in violation of the 's if it denied admission to its nursing program on the basis of gender. Mississippi University for Women, the first, changed its admissions policies and became coeducational after the ruling. In what was her first opinion written for the, stated, 'In limited circumstances, a gender-based classification favoring one sex can be justified if it intentionally and directly assists members of the sex that is disproportionately burdened.'

She went on to point out that there are a disproportionate number of women who are nurses, and that denying admission to men 'lends credibility to the old view that women, not men, should become nurses, and makes the assumption that nursing is a field for women a '. In the dissenting opinions, Justices,,, and suggested that the result of this ruling would be the elimination of publicly supported single-sex educational opportunities. This suggestion has proven to be accurate as there are no public women's colleges in the United States today and, as a result of, the last all-male public university in the United States,, was required to admit women.

The ruling did not require the university to change its name to reflect its and it continues a tradition of academic and leadership development for women by providing and professional education to women and men. Mills College [ ] On May 3, 1990, the Trustees of announced that they had voted to admit male students. This decision led to a two-week student and staff, accompanied by numerous displays of protests by the students.

At one point, nearly 300 students blockaded the administrative offices and boycotted classes. On May 18, the Trustees met again to reconsider the decision, leading finally to a reversal of the vote. Other colleges [ ] merged with. Declined an offer to merge with, becoming coeducational in 1969. [ ] also adopted coeducation during the late 1960s., previously with a student body of women only, became co-educational in 2005. Douglass College, part of, was the last publicly funded women's only college until 2007 when it became coed.

Criticism [ ].