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• • • Socialism is a range of and characterised by and of the, as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Social ownership may refer to forms of, or ownership, or to. There are many varieties of and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them, though social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms.

Socialist economic systems can be divided into non-market and forms. Non-market socialism involves the substitution of and, with engineering and technical criteria, based on, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different from those of. Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and traditionally associated with and the profit system. By contrast, retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a.

The discusses the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a socialist system. The socialist includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. In addition to the debate over markets and planning, the varieties of socialism differ in their form of social ownership, how management is to be organised within productive institutions and the role of the state in constructing socialism.

Core dichotomies include versus and versus. Socialist politics has been both centralist and decentralised; internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent of —and critical of —unions; and present in both industrialised and developing countries. While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term ' is often used to highlight its advocates' high value for and democratic, usually to draw contrast to tendencies they may perceive to be undemocratic in their approach.

Democratic socialism is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the, which critics argue operated in an fashion. By the late 19th century, after the work of and his collaborator, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.

By the 1920s, and had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement. By this time, socialism emerged as 'the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement' and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally led to socialism's widespread association with the, many economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of or a non-planned administrative or command economy. And ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world.

Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as, and. Utopian socialist pamphlet of For Andrew Vincent, '[t]he word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen'. The term 'socialism' was created by, one of the founders of what would later be labelled '. Simon coined 'socialism' as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of ', which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another. The original 'utopian' socialists condemned liberal individualism for failing to address social concerns during the industrial revolution, including poverty, social oppression and gross inequalities in wealth, thus viewing liberal individualism as degenerating society into supporting selfish that harmed community life through promoting a society based on competition.

They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the shared ownership of resources, although their proposals for socialism differed significantly. Saint-Simon proposed economic planning, scientific administration and the application of modern scientific advancements to the organization of society. By contrast, proposed the organization of production and ownership in cooperatives. The term 'socialism' is attributed to and to in France; and in Britain to Robert Owen in 1827, father of the. The modern definition and usage of 'socialism' settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term among the group of words 'co-operative', 'mutualist' and 'associationist', which had previously been used as synonyms. The term 'communism' also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods).

However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term 'socialism' in place of 'communism', which had come to be considered an old-fashion synonym for socialism. It was not until 1917 after the revolution that 'socialism' came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticisms that Russia's were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution. A distinction between 'communist' and 'socialist' as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to the All-Russian Communist Party, where communist came to specifically mean socialists who supported the politics and theories of, Bolshevism and later, although communist parties continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism. The words 'socialism' and 'communism' eventually accorded with the adherents' and opponents' cultural attitude towards religion.

In Christian Europe, communism was believed to be the way of life. In Protestant England, the word 'communism' was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Argued that in 1848, at the time when the was published, 'socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not'. The in England and the in France were considered 'respectable' socialists, while working-class movements that 'proclaimed the necessity of total social change' denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of in France and in Germany.

The British also came to advocate a form of economic socialism within a liberal context. In later editions of his (1848), Mill would argue that 'as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies'. While democrats looked to the as a democratic revolution, which in the long run ensured liberty, equality and fraternity, Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat. Influential early French socialist thinker Socialist models and ideas espousing common or public ownership have existed since antiquity. It has been claimed – though controversially – that there were elements of socialist thought in the politics of classical Greek philosophers and., a Persian communal proto-socialist, instituted communal possessions and advocated the public good., a of Prophet Muhammad, is credited by many as a principal antecedent of.

In the period right after the, activists and theorists like,, and influenced the early French labour and socialist movements. In Britain, proposed a detailed plan to tax property owners to pay for the needs of the poor in while wrote The Effects of Civilization on the People in European States, denouncing capitalism's effects on the poor of his time which influenced the utopian schemes of. The first 'self-conscious socialist movements developed in the 1820s and 1830s., and provided a series of coherent analyses and interpretations of society. They also, especially in the case of the Owenites, overlapped with a number of other working-class movements like the in the United Kingdom'. The Chartists gathered significant numbers around the People's Charter of 1838, which demanded the extension of suffrage to all male adults. Leaders in the movement also called for a more equitable distribution of income and better living conditions for the working classes. 'The very first trade unions and consumers’ cooperative societies also emerged in the hinterland of the Chartist movement, as a way of bolstering the fight for these demands'.

A later important socialist thinker in France was, who proposed his philosophy of in which 'everyone had an equal claim, either alone or as part of a small cooperative, to possess and use land and other resources as needed to make a living'. There were also currents inspired by dissident Christianity of 'often in Britain and then usually coming out of left liberal politics and a romantic anti-industrialism' which produced theorists such as, and.

The first advocates of socialism favoured social levelling in order to create a or society based on individual talent. Count is regarded as the first individual to coin the term 'socialism'. Saint-Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology and advocated a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and would be based on equal opportunities. [ ] He advocated the creation of a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work.

The key focus of Saint-Simon's socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism and a belief that science was the key to progress. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organised economy based on planning and geared towards large-scale scientific and material progress, thus embodied a desire for a more directed. Other early socialist thinkers, such as and Charles Hall, based their ideas on 's economic theories. They reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated prices charged by the producer when those commodities were in elastic supply and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labour – the cost of the labour (essentially the wages paid) that was required to produce the commodities. The viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value. [ ] West European social critics, including,,,,, and were the first modern socialists who criticised the excessive poverty and inequality of the. They advocated reform, with some such as Robert Owen advocating the transformation of society to small communities without private property.

Robert Owen's contribution to modern socialism was his understanding that actions and characteristics of individuals were largely determined by the social environment they were raised in and exposed to. On the other hand, advocated which were communities that respected individual desires (including sexual preferences), affinities and creativity and saw that work has to be made enjoyable for people. The ideas of Owen and Fourier were tried in practice in numerous around Europe and the American continent in the mid-19th century.

Paris Commune. The celebration of the election of the Commune on 28 March 1871 —the was a major early implementation of socialist ideas The was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. The Commune elections held on 26 March elected a Commune council of 92 members, one member for each 20,000 residents. Despite internal differences, the council began to organise the public services essential for a city of two million residents. It also reached a consensus on certain policies that tended towards a progressive, secular and highly-democratic.

Because the Commune was only able to meet on fewer than 60 days in all, only a few decrees were actually implemented. These included the; the remission of rents owed for the entire period of the siege (during which payment had been suspended); the abolition of in the hundreds of Paris; the granting of pensions to the unmarried companions and children of National Guards killed on active service; and the free return, by the city, of all workmen's tools and household items valued up to 20 francs, pledged during the siege. The Commune was concerned that skilled workers had been forced to pawn their tools during the war; the postponement of commercial obligations and the abolition of interest on the debts; and the if it were deserted by its owner.

The Commune nonetheless recognised the previous owner's right to compensation. First International. Speaking to members of the at the Basel Congress in 1869 The (IWA), often called the First International, was founded in London in 1864. The International Workingmen's Association united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of,,, English trade unionists, socialists and. The IWA held a preliminary conference in 1865 and had its first congress at in 1866. Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx came from the who opposed communism and.

However, shortly after and his followers (called collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps headed by Marx and Bakunin respectively. The clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism.

The First International became the first major international forum for the promulgation of socialist ideas. The followers of Bakunin were called and sought to collectivise ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labor of each individual. Like Proudhonists, they asserted the right of each individual to the product of his labor and to be remunerated for their particular contribution to production. By contrast, anarcho-communists sought collective ownership of both the means and the products of labor.

Errico Malatesta put it: '[I]nstead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work and put everything in common. In this way each will give to society all that his strength permits until enough is produced for every one; and each will take all that he needs, limiting his needs only in those things of which there is not yet plenty for every one'. As a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by, Emilio Covelli,, and other ex republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death. Emerged in France inspired in part by the ideas of and later by and.

It developed at the end of the 19th century 'out of the French trade-union movement – syndicat is the French word for trade union. It was a significant force in Italy and Spain in the early 20th century until it was crushed by the fascist regimes in those countries. In the United States, syndicalism appeared in the guise of the, or 'Wobblies', founded in 1905.

Syndicalism is an where industries are organised into (syndicates) and the economy is managed by negotiation between specialists and worker representatives of each field, comprising multiple non-competitive categorised units. Syndicalism is thus a form of communism and economic, but also refers to the political movement and tactics used to bring about this type of system. An influential anarchist movement based on syndicalist ideas is. The is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. Is a organisation which was established with the purpose of advancing the principles of socialism via and means. The society laid many of the foundations of the and subsequently affected the policies of states emerging from the of the, most notably India and Singapore. Originally, the Fabian Society was committed to the establishment of a, alongside a commitment to as a progressive and modernising force.

Today, the society functions primarily as a and is one of 15 affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia (the ), in Canada (the and the now disbanded ) and in New Zealand. Guild socialism is a political movement advocating of industry through the medium of trade-related 'in an implied contractual relationship with the public'. It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. Inspired by medieval guilds, theorists such as and advocated the public ownership of industries and their organisation into guilds, each of which would be under the democratic control of its trade union. Guild socialists were less inclined than Fabians to invest power in a state. At some point 'like the American, guild socialism wanted to abolish the wage system'.

Second International As the ideas of Marx and Engels took on flesh, particularly in central Europe, socialists sought to unite in an international organisation. In 1889, on the centennial of the French Revolution of 1789, the was founded, with 384 delegates from 20 countries representing about 300 labour and socialist organisations. It was termed the 'Socialist International' and Engels was elected honorary president at the third congress in 1893. Anarchists were ejected and not allowed in, mainly due to pressure from Marxists. It has been argued that at some point the Second International turned 'into a battleground over the issue of versus socialism. Not only did they effectively present themselves as champions of minority rights; they also provoked the German Marxists into demonstrating a dictatorial intolerance which was a factor in preventing the British labor movement from following the Marxist direction indicated by such leaders as '. Reformism arose as an alternative to revolution.

Was a leading in Germany who proposed the concept of evolutionary socialism. Revolutionary socialists quickly targeted reformism: condemned Bernstein's in her 1900 essay. Revolutionary socialism encompasses multiple social and political movements that may define 'revolution' differently from one another.

The (SPD) in Germany became the largest and most powerful socialist party in Europe, despite working illegally until the anti-socialist laws were dropped in 1890. In the 1893 elections, it gained 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the total votes cast, according to Engels. In 1895, the year of his death, Engels emphasised the 's emphasis on winning, as a first step, the 'battle of democracy'. Early 20th century. Member of the and later leader and theorist of the In 1904, Australians elected the first prime minister:, who became the first democratically elected social democrat.

In 1909 the first was established in Palestine by Russian Jewish Immigrants. The Kibbutz Movement would then expand through the 20th century following a doctrine of socialism. The British first won seats in the House of Commons in 1902. The (ISC, also known as Berne International) was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International. By 1917, the patriotism of changed into in most of Europe, the and Australia. Other socialist parties from around the world who were beginning to gain importance in their national politics in the early 20th century included the, the, the, the, the, the in the United States, the and the Chilean Partido Obrero Socialista.

Russian Revolution. Main article: Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International (ISC) or Comintern formed the (IWUSP, also known as Vienna International/Vienna Union/Two-and-a-Half International) on 27 February 1921 at a conference in. The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the (LSI) in May 1923 at a meeting in Left wing groups which did not agree to the centralisation and abandonment of the soviets by the Bolshevik Party led —such groups included,, and. Within this left wing discontent, the most large scale events were the worker's and the anarchist led uprising which controlled an area known as the. Third International.

Main article: The Bolshevik Russian Revolution of January 1918 engendered communist parties worldwide and their concomitant. Few communists doubted that the Russian success of socialism depended on successful, working-class socialist revolutions in developed capitalist countries. In 1919, Lenin and Trotsky organised the world's communist parties into a new international association of workers – the (Comintern), also called the Third International. The Russian Revolution also influenced uprisings in other countries around this time. The resulted in the replacing Germany's imperial government with a republic. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the formal establishment of the in August 1919 and included an episode known as the and the. In Italy, the events known as the were characterised by mass strikes, worker manifestations and self-management experiments through land and factory occupations.

In and, were formed and many took place led by organised around the. By 1920, the, under its commander Trotsky, had largely defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, War Communism was ended and under the (NEP) private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises.

While industry remained largely state-controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country unripe for socialism. Profiteering returned in the form of 'NEP men' and rich peasants () gained power in the countryside. Nevertheless, the role of Trotsky in this episode has been questioned by other socialists, including ex Trotskyists. In the United States, broke with and left the Trotskyist, by raising the question of the, which Trotsky as leader of the and the other Bolsheviks had brutally repressed. He then moved towards democratic socialism and. A similar critique of Trotsky's role on the events around the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by the American anarchist. In her essay 'Trotsky Protests Too Much', she says: 'I admit, the dictatorship under Stalin's rule has become monstrous.

That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one of the bloodiest scenes'. Prominent Marxist revolutionary, leader of the German and martyr and leader of the German, 1919 Fourth congress In 1922, the fourth congress of the took up the policy of the, urging communists to work with rank and file Social Democrats while remaining critical of their leaders, whom they criticised for betraying the working class by supporting the war efforts of their respective capitalist classes. For their part, the social democrats pointed to the dislocation caused by revolution and later the growing authoritarianism of the communist parties. When the applied to affiliate to the in 1920, it was turned down.

In 1923, on seeing the Soviet State's growing coercive power a dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to 'a bourgeois tsarist machine. Barely varnished with socialism'. After Lenin's death in January 1924, the – then increasingly under the control of – rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union in favour of the concept of '. Despite the marginalised 's demand for the restoration of Soviet democracy, Stalin developed a bureaucratic, government that was condemned by democratic socialists, anarchists and for undermining the initial socialist ideals of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution. [ ] [ ] In 1924, the was established and was ruled by the.

The Russian Revolution and the appearance of the Soviet State motivated a worldwide current of national communist parties which ended having varying levels of political and social influence. Among these there appeared the, the, the, the, the, the, the and the.

Spanish Civil War. Flag of the CNT In Spain in 1936, the national trade union (CNT) initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory.

In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup, sparking the (1936–1939). In response to the army rebellion, an movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of and of large areas of rural Spain where they the land. The events known as the was a workers' that began during the outbreak of the in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of and more broadly organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily, Aragon, and parts of. Much of was put under worker control and in anarchist strongholds like the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy influence, as the Soviet-allied party actively resisted attempts at enactment.

Factories were run through worker committees, areas became collectivised and run as. Anarchist historian estimated that about eight million people participated directly or indirectly in the. Mid-20th century. Prime minister of Sweden for the and a main architect of the Swedish social democratic model The is the economic and of the (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland). During most of the post-war era, Sweden was governed by the largely in cooperation with and industry. In Sweden, the Social Democratic Party held power from 1936 to 1976, 1982 to 1991, 1994 to 2006 and 2014 to present. From 1945 to 1962, the held an absolute majority in the parliament led by who was Prime Minister with 17 years in office.

This particular adaptation of the is characterised by more generous (relative to other developed countries), which are aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, ensuring the universal provision of basic human rights and stabilising the economy. It is distinguished from other welfare states with similar goals by its emphasis on maximising labour force participation, promoting gender equality, and extensive benefit levels, large magnitude of redistribution and expansionary fiscal policy. Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Main article: The played a decisive role in the victory in. After the War, the Soviet Union became a recognised superpower. The Soviet era saw some of the of the 20th century, including the world's and the.

The Soviet economy was the modern world's first centrally planned economy. It was based on a system of state ownership of industry managed through (the State Planning Commission), (the State Bank) and the (State Commission for Materials and Equipment Supply). Economic planning was conducted through a series of. The emphasis was on fast development of heavy industry and the nation became one of the world's top manufacturers of a large number of basic and heavy industrial products, but it lagged in light industrial production and consumer durables. [ ] The was the group of former of, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the which included the, the, the, the, the, the, the and the.

The was a spontaneous nationwide against the government of the and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Soviet leader during the of the on 1956, as well as the revolt in Hungary, produced ideological fractures and disagreements within the communist and socialist parties of Western Europe. Third World In the postwar years, socialism became increasingly influential throughout the so-called. Embracing a new, countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America often nationalised industries held by foreign owners. The Chinese, the previous ruling party in Taiwan, was referred to as having a socialist ideology since Kuomintang's revolutionary ideology in the 1920s incorporated unique Chinese socialism as part of its ideology.

The Soviet Union trained Kuomintang revolutionaries in the. Movie theatres in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls and in the Soviet Parades that year Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Lenin, Stalin and other socialist leaders. The was the second stage in the which ended in the establishment of the led by the. The term 'Third World' was coined by French demographer in 1952 on the model of the, which according to the represented everything, but was nothing 'because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too'. The emergence of this new political entity in the frame of the was complex and painful. Several tentatives were made to organise newly independent states in order to oppose a common front towards both the United States' and the Soviet Union's influence on them, with the consequences of the already at works. The constituted itself around the main figures of Prime Minister of India, President of Indonesia, leader of and of who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during the 1956.

After the 1954 which ended the French war against in Vietnam, the 1955 gathered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, and,. As many African countries gained independence during the 1960s, some of them rejected capitalism in favour of a more economic model. The main architects of were of, of, of and of Guinea. The (1953–1959) was an armed revolt conducted by 's and its allies against the government of Cuban. The revolution began in July 1953 and finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his government with Castro's revolutionary state. Castro's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the in October 1965.

Main article: The New Left was a term used mainly in the United Kingdom and United States in reference to, educators, and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more approach to social justice and focused mostly on and questions of social class. The New Left rejected involvement with the and 's historical theory of. In the United States, the New Left was associated with the and anti-war college campus protest movements, as well as the black liberation movements such as the. While initially formed in opposition to the 'Old Left' Democratic Party, groups composing the New Left gradually became central players in the Democratic coalition. Protests of 1968. Main article: The protests of 1968 represented a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, predominantly characterised by popular rebellions against military, capitalist and bureaucratic elites who responded with an escalation of.

These protests marked a turning point for the in the United States, which produced revolutionary movements like the; the prominent civil rights leader organised the ' to address issues of economic justice, while personally showing sympathy with democratic socialism. In reaction to the, protests also sparked a broad movement in opposition to the all over the United States and even into London,, Berlin and Rome. In 1968 in, Italy, the was founded during an international anarchist conference held there by the three existing European federations of, the and the as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.

Mass socialist or communist movements grew not only in the United States, but also in most European countries. The most spectacular manifestation of this were the, in which students linked up with strikes of up to ten million workers and for a few days the movement seemed capable of overthrowing the government. [ ] In many other capitalist countries, struggles against dictatorships, state repression and colonisation were also marked by protests in 1968, such as the beginning of in Northern Ireland, the in Mexico City and the escalation of guerrilla warfare against the. Countries governed by communist parties had protests against bureaucratic and military elites. In Eastern Europe there were widespread protests that escalated particularly in the in Czechoslovakia. In response, Soviet Union occupied Czechoslovakia, but the occupation was denounced by the and communist parties and the. Few western European political leaders defended the occupation, among them the secretary-general.

Along with the and conservative factions of the. In the, a social-political youth movement mobilised against ' elements which were seen to be infiltrating the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. This movement motivated -inspired movements around the world in the context of the. [ ] In Indonesia, a right wing military regime led by, mainly to crush the growing influence of the and other leftist sectors, with, which provided kill lists containing thousands of names of suspected high-ranking Communists.

President of Chile and member of the, whose presidency was ended by a -backed In Latin America in the 1960s, a socialist tendency within the catholic church appeared which was called which motivated even the Colombian priest to enter the guerrilla. In Chile,, a physician and candidate for the, was elected president through democratic elections in 1970. In 1973, his government was ousted by the United States-backed military dictatorship of, which lasted until the late 1980s.

In Italy, was a leftist movement particularly active from 1976 to 1978. It took an important role in the movement in the 1970s, aside earlier organisations such as, created after May 1968, and. This experience prompted the contemporary socialist radical movement. Late 20th century.

Main articles:,,,,, and The encompassed the rising opposition to the dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s, the campaign led by the (FSLN) to violently oust the dictatorship in 1978–1979, the subsequent efforts of the FSLN to govern Nicaragua from 1979 until 1990 and the socialist measures which included widescale and educational programs. The was proclaimed on 13 March 1979 in which was. The (1979–1992) was a conflict between the military-led government of and the (FMLN), a coalition or umbrella organisation of five socialist guerrilla groups. A coup on 15 October 1979 led to the killings of anti-coup protesters by the government as well as anti-disorder protesters by the guerillas, and is widely seen as the tipping point towards the civil war. In 1982, the newly elected French socialist government of made nationalisations in a few key industries, including banks and insurance companies. Was a trend in the 1970s and 1980s in various Western European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant for a Western European country and less aligned to the influence or control of the. Outside Western Europe, it is sometimes called neocommunism. 17th Edition Consumer Unit Labels For Shelves.

Some Communist parties with strong popular support, notably the (PCI) and the (PCE) adopted Eurocommunism most enthusiastically, and the was dominated by Eurocommunists. The (PCF) and many smaller parties strongly opposed Eurocommunism and stayed aligned with the until the end of the Soviet Union.

In the late 1970s and in the 1980s, the Socialist International (SI) had extensive contacts and discussion with the two powers of the, the United States and the Soviet Union, about East-West relations and arms control. Since then, the SI has admitted as member parties the Nicaraguan, the left-wing, as well as former communist parties such as the of Italy and the (FRELIMO). The SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in and. Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe and no formal involvement with Latin America. General Secretary of the from 1985 until 1991 After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, took power and led the People's Republic of China to.

The Communist Party of China loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the were disbanded in favour of private land leases, thus China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy named as ' which maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. China adopted its current on 4 December 1982. And led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual growth rate of 11.2%. At the of the in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the 'old guard' government with new leadership.

The reformers were led by 71-year-old, who became the party's new general secretary. Linh and the reformers implemented a series of reforms – known as ('Renovation') – which carefully managed the transition from a to a '.

Wished to move the Soviet Union towards of Nordic-style social democracy, calling it 'a socialist beacon for all mankind'. Prior to its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union had after the United States. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the economic integration of the Soviet republics was dissolved and overall industrial activity declined substantially. A lasting legacy remains in the physical infrastructure created during decades of combined industrial production practices, and widespread environmental destruction. Many social democratic parties, particularly after the Cold War, adopted market policies including, and.

They abandoned their pursuit of moderate socialism in favour of. By the 1980s, with the rise of conservative neoliberal politicians such as in the United States, in Britain, in Canada and in Chile, the Western was attacked from within, but state support for the corporate sector was maintained. And neoliberals attacked social welfare systems as impediments to private entrepreneurship.

In the United Kingdom, leader made a public attack against the group at the 1985 Labour Party conference. The Labour Party ruled that Militant was ineligible for affiliation with the Labour Party, and the party gradually expelled Militant supporters. The Kinnock leadership had refused to support the over pit closures, a decision that the party's left wing and the blamed for the strike's eventual defeat. In 1989, at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a new Declaration of Principles, saying: Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity.

Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic values can be enhanced and where each individual can live a meaningful life with the full development of his or her personality and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society. In the 1990s, the British Labour Party under enacted policies based on the free market economy to deliver public services via the. Influential in these policies was the idea of a ' which called for a re-evalutation of welfare state policies. In 1995, the Labour Party re-defined its stance on socialism by re-wording of its constitution, effectively rejecting socialism by removing all references to public, direct worker or municipal ownership of the means of production.

The Labour Party stated: 'The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a community in which power, wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few'. Contemporary socialist politics.

Socialist who led the (SYRIZA) through a victory in the The socialist in Germany grew in popularity due to dissatisfaction with the increasingly neoliberal policies of the SPD, becoming the fourth biggest party in parliament in the general election on 27 September 2009. Communist candidate won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53%.

In Ireland, in the of the took one of three seats in the capital. In Denmark, the (SF) more than doubled its parliamentary representation to 23 seats from 11, making it the fourth largest party. In 2011, the socialist parties of, and the formed government, after a slight victory over the liberal parties.

They were led by Helle Thorning-Schmidt, and had the as a supporting party. In Norway, the consists of the (Ap), the (SV) and the (Sp) and governed the country as a majority government from the until. In the, the (SYRIZA) led by won a legislative election for the first time while the won 15 seats in parliament.

SYRIZA has been characterised as an party, whose success has sent 'shock-waves across the EU'. In the United Kingdom, the put forward a slate of candidates in the 2009 European Parliament elections under the banner of, a broad left-wing coalition involving socialist groups such as the, aiming to offer an alternative to the 'anti-foreigner' and pro-business policies of the. In the following May 2010 United Kingdom general election, the, launched in January 2010 and backed by Bob Crow, the leader of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers union (RMT), other union leaders and the Socialist Party among other socialist groups, stood against Labour in 40 constituencies. The contested the, having gained the endorsement of the RMT June 2010 conference, but. Was also founded in 2013 after the film director appealed for a new party of the left to replace the, which he claimed had failed to oppose austerity and had shifted towards. In 2015, following a defeat at the, self-described socialist took over from as. In France,, the (LCR) candidate in the 2007 presidential election, received 1,498,581 votes, 4.08%, double that of the communist candidate.

The LCR abolished itself in 2009 to initiate a broad anti-capitalist party, the, whose stated aim is to 'build a new socialist, democratic perspective for the twenty-first century'. On 25 May 2014, in Spain the left wing party entered candidates for the, some of which were unemployed. In a surprise result, it polled 7.98% of the vote and thus was awarded five seats out of 54 while the older was the third largest overall force obtaining 10.03% and 5 seats, 4 more than the previous elections. The current government of Portugal was established on 26 November 2015 as a (PS) led by prime minister. Costa succeeded in securing support for a Socialist minority government by the (B.E.), the (PCP) and the (PEV).

All around Europe and in some places of Latin America there exists a and movement mainly inspired by and anarchist ideas. North America. Early The fundamental objective of socialism is to attain an advanced level of material production and therefore greater productivity, efficiency and rationality as compared to capitalism and all previous systems, under the view that an expansion of human productive capability is the basis for the extension of freedom and equality in society. Many forms of socialist theory hold that human behaviour is largely shaped by the social environment.

In particular, socialism holds that social, values, cultural traits and economic practices are social creations and not the result of an immutable. The object of their critique is thus not human avarice or human consciousness, but the material conditions and man-made social systems (i.e. The economic structure of society) that gives rise to observed social problems and inefficiencies., often considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, identified as a socialist. Russell opposed the class struggle aspects of Marxism, viewing socialism solely as an adjustment of economic relations to accommodate modern machine production to benefit all of humanity through the progressive reduction of necessary work time. Socialists view creativity as an essential aspect of human nature and define freedom as a state of being where individuals are able to express their creativity unhindered by constraints of both material scarcity and coercive social institutions. The socialist concept of individuality is thus intertwined with the concept of individual creative expression. Karl Marx believed that expansion of the productive forces and technology was the basis for the expansion of human freedom and that socialism, being a system that is consistent with modern developments in technology, would enable the flourishing of 'free individualities' through the progressive reduction of necessary labour time.

The reduction of necessary labour time to a minimum would grant individuals the opportunity to pursue the development of their true individuality and creativity. Criticism of capitalism Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high-pressure advertisement); thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand. Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need and therefore a crucial criticism often made by socialists is that 'making money', or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand (the production of ). The fundamental criterion for economic activity in capitalism is the accumulation of capital for reinvestment in production, but this spurs the development of new, non-productive industries that do not produce use-value and only exist to keep the accumulation process afloat (otherwise the system goes into crisis), such as the spread of the, contributing to the formation of economic bubbles. Socialists view relations as limiting the potential of in the economy.

According to socialists, private property becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralised, socialised institutions based on private appropriation of revenue —but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs —until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant. With no need for and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organization that should be replaced by a of individuals based on public or of these socialised assets. Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to uncoordinated economic decisions that result in business fluctuations, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of. Excessive disparities in income distribution lead to social instability and require costly corrective measures in the form of redistributive taxation, which incurs heavy administrative costs while weakening the incentive to work, inviting dishonesty and increasing the likelihood of tax evasion while (the corrective measures) reduce the overall efficiency of the market economy. These corrective policies limit the incentive system of the market by providing things such as,, taxing profits and reducing the reserve army of labor, resulting in reduced incentives for capitalists to invest in more production. In essence, social welfare policies cripple capitalism and its incentive system and are thus unsustainable in the long-run. Marxists argue that the establishment of a is the only way to overcome these deficiencies.

Socialists and specifically argue that the inherent conflict of interests between the working class and capital prevent optimal use of available human resources and leads to contradictory interest groups (labor and business) striving to influence the state to intervene in the economy in their favor at the expense of overall economic efficiency. Early socialists ( and ) criticised capitalism for concentrating and within a small segment of society. In addition, they complained that capitalism does not utilise available and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public. The writings of provided the basis for the development of Marxist political theory and Marxian economics and argued that socialism would emerge from historical necessity as capitalism rendered itself obsolete and unsustainable from increasing internal contradictions emerging from the development of the and technology. It was these advances in the productive forces combined with the old of capitalism that would generate contradictions, leading to working-class consciousness. Marx and Engels held the view that the consciousness of those who earn a wage or salary (the in the broadest Marxist sense) would be moulded by their conditions of, leading to a tendency to seek their freedom or by overthrowing ownership of the means of production by capitalists and consequently, overthrowing the state that upheld this economic order.

For Marx and Engels, conditions determine consciousness and ending the role of the capitalist class leads eventually to a in which the. The Marxist conception of socialism is that of a specific historical phase that would displace capitalism and precede. The major characteristics of socialism (particularly as conceived by Marx and Engels after the of 1871) are that the would control the means of production through a erected by the workers in their interests.

Economic activity would still be organised through the use of incentive systems and social classes would still exist, but to a lesser and diminishing extent than under capitalism. For orthodox Marxists, socialism is the lower stage of communism based on the principle of 'from each according to his ability, ' while upper stage communism is based on the principle of ', the upper stage becoming possible only after the socialist stage further develops economic efficiency and the automation of production has led to a superabundance of goods and services.

Arms & Sleepers The Organ Hearts Rar. Marx argued that the material productive forces (in industry and commerce) brought into existence by capitalism predicated a cooperative society since production had become a mass social, collective activity of the working class to create commodities but with private ownership (the relations of production or property relations). This conflict between collective effort in large factories and private ownership would bring about a conscious desire in the working class to establish collective ownership commensurate with the collective efforts their daily experience. Role of the state Socialists have taken different perspectives on the and the role it should play in revolutionary struggles, in constructing socialism and within an established socialist economy.

In the 19th century the philosophy of state socialism was first explicitly expounded by the German political philosopher. In contrast to Karl Marx's perspective of the state, Lassalle rejected the concept of the state as a class-based power structure whose main function was to preserve existing class structures. Thus Lassalle also rejected the Marxist view that the state was destined to 'wither away'.

Lassalle considered the state to be an entity independent of class allegiances and an instrument of justice that would therefore be essential for achieving socialism. Preceding the Bolshevik-led revolution in Russia, many socialists including, currents such as, anarchists and criticised the idea of using the state to conduct central planning and own the means of production as a way to establish socialism. Following the victory of Leninism in Russia, the idea of ' spread rapidly throughout the socialist movement and eventually state socialism came to be identified with the. Joseph Schumpeter rejected the association of socialism (and social ownership) with state ownership over the means of production, because the state as it exists in its current form is a product of capitalist society and cannot be transplanted to a different institutional framework. Schumpeter argued that there would be different institutions within socialism than those that exist within modern capitalism, just as had its own distinct and unique institutional forms.

The state, along with concepts like and, were concepts exclusive to commercial society (capitalism) and attempting to place them within the context of a future socialist society would amount to a distortion of these concepts by using them out of context. Utopian versus scientific. Main articles: and Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of, and, which inspired and other early socialists. However, visions of imaginary ideal societies, which competed with revolutionary social-democratic movements, were viewed as not being grounded in the material conditions of society and as reactionary. Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label 'utopian' by later socialists as a negative term in order to imply naivete and dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic. Religious sects whose members live communally such as the, for example, are not usually called 'utopian socialists', although their way of living is a prime example.

They have been categorised as by some. Likewise, modern based on socialist ideas could also be categorised as 'utopian socialist'. For Marxists, the development of capitalism in western Europe provided a material basis for the possibility of bringing about socialism, because according to the '[w]hat the bourgeoisie produces above all is its own grave diggers', namely the working class, which must become conscious of the historical objectives set it by society. Reform versus revolution. Main articles: and Revolutionary socialists believe that a social revolution is necessary to effect structural changes to the socioeconomic structure of society. Among revolutionary socialists there are differences in strategy, theory and the definition of 'revolution'.

Orthodox Marxists and left communists take an stance, believing that revolution should be spontaneous as a result of contradictions in society due to technological changes in the productive forces. Lenin theorised that under capitalism the workers cannot achieve class consciousness beyond organising into and making demands of the capitalists. Therefore advocate that it is historically necessary for a of class-conscious revolutionaries to take a central role in coordinating the social revolution to overthrow the capitalist state and eventually the institution of the state altogether. 'Revolution' is not necessarily defined by revolutionary socialists as violent insurrection, but as a complete dismantling and rapid transformation of all areas of class society led by the majority of the masses: the working class. Reformism is generally associated with and democratic socialism.

Reformism is the belief that socialists should stand in parliamentary elections within capitalist society and if elected utilise the to pass political and social reforms for the purposes of ameliorating the instabilities and inequities of capitalism. See also: Socialist economics starts from the premise that 'individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another.

Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members'. The original conception of socialism was an economic system whereby production was organised in a way to directly produce goods and services for their utility (or use-value in classical and Marxian economics): the direct allocation of resources in terms of physical units as opposed to financial calculation and the economic laws of capitalism (see: ), often entailing the end of capitalistic economic categories such as,, and money. In a fully developed socialist economy, production and balancing factor inputs with outputs becomes a technical process to be undertaken by engineers. Refers to an array of different economic theories and systems that utilise the market mechanism to organise production and to allocate factor inputs among socially owned enterprises, with the economic surplus (profits) accruing to society in a as opposed to private capital owners. Variations of market socialism include proposals such as, based on classical economics, and neoclassical economic models such as the.

However, some economists such as, and others not specifically advancing anti-socialists positions have shown that prevailing economic models upon which such democratic or market socialism models might be based have logical flaws or unworkable presuppositions. The ownership of the can be based on direct ownership by the users of the productive property through; or by all of society with management and control delegated to those who operate/use the means of production; or by a state apparatus. Public ownership may refer to the creation of,, or autonomous collective institutions. Some socialists feel that in a socialist economy, at least the ' of the economy must be publicly owned. However, and view of the and the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute, therefore they perceive of the, and as infringements upon liberty. Management and control over the activities of enterprises are based on self-management and self-governance, with equal power-relations in the workplace to maximise occupational autonomy. A socialist form of organisation would eliminate controlling hierarchies so that only a hierarchy based on technical knowledge in the workplace remains.

Every member would have decision-making power in the firm and would be able to participate in establishing its overall policy objectives. The policies/goals would be carried out by the technical specialists that form the coordinating hierarchy of the firm, who would establish plans or directives for the work community to accomplish these goals. The role and use of money in a hypothetical socialist economy is a contested issue. According to the economist, an economic system that does not use, financial calculation and would be unable to effectively value and coordinate production and therefore these types of socialism are impossible because they lack the necessary information to perform economic calculation in the first place. Socialists including,, and advocated various forms of or labour-credits, which like money would be used to acquire articles of consumption, but unlike money they are unable to become and would not be used to allocate resources within the production process. Bolshevik revolutionary argued that money could not be arbitrarily abolished following a socialist revolution. Money had to exhaust its 'historic mission', meaning it would have to be used until its function became redundant, eventually being transformed into bookkeeping receipts for statisticians and only in the more distant future would money not be required for even that role.

The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil. I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilised in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child.

The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society. Main article: A planned economy is a type of economy consisting of a mixture of public ownership of the means of production and the coordination of production and distribution through. There are two major types of planning: decentralised-planning and centralised-planning. Provided a comprehensive theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy.

In his model, assuming perfect computation techniques, simultaneous equations relating inputs and outputs to ratios of equivalence would provide appropriate valuations in order to balance supply and demand. The most prominent example of a planned economy was the and as such the centralised-planned economic model is usually associated with the of the 20th century, where it was combined with a single-party political system. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency (see also: ). The economic systems of the Soviet Union and the are further classified as 'command economies', which are defined as systems where economic coordination is undertaken by commands, directives and production targets. Studies by economists of various political persuasions on the actual functioning of the Soviet economy indicate that it was not actually a planned economy. Instead of conscious planning, the Soviet economy was based on a process whereby the plan was modified by localised agents and the original plans went largely unfulfilled.

Planning agencies, ministries and enterprises all adapted and bargained with each other during the formulation of the plan as opposed to following a plan passed down from a higher authority, leading some economists to suggest that planning did not actually take place within the Soviet economy and that a better description would be an 'administered' or 'managed' economy. Although central planning was largely supported by, some factions within the Soviet Union before the rise of held positions contrary to central planning. Leon Trotsky rejected central planning in favour of decentralised planning. He argued that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, would be unable to coordinate effectively all economic activity within an economy because they operated without the input and tacit knowledge embodied by the participation of the millions of people in the economy. As a result, central planners would be unable to respond to local economic conditions. Is unfeasible in this view because information cannot be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result in. Self-managed economy.

See also:,, and A self-managed, decentralised economy is based on autonomous self-regulating economic units and a decentralised mechanism of resource allocation and decision-making. This model has found support in notable classical and neoclassical economists including, and. There are numerous variations of self-management, including labour-managed firms and worker-managed firms. The goals of self-management are to eliminate exploitation and reduce. Is a political movement advocating of industry through the medium of trade-related 'in an implied contractual relationship with the public'. It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century.

It was strongly associated with and influenced by the ideas of. One such system is the cooperative economy, a largely free in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labour divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the and rented to the workers, who would enjoy rights. Another form of decentralised planning is the use of, or the use of computers to manage the allocation of economic inputs.

The socialist-run government of in Chile experimented with, a real-time information bridge between the government, state enterprises and consumers. Another, more recent variant is, wherein the economy is planned by decentralised councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less.

A contemporary model for a self-managed, non-market socialism is 's model of negotiated coordination. Negotiated coordination is based upon social ownership by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with decisions made by those at the most localised level of production. Identifies the emergence of the open software movement and as a new alternative to the capitalist economy and centrally planned economy that is based on collaborative self-management, common ownership of resources and the production of use-values through the free cooperation of producers who have access to distributed capital. Is a theory of which advocates the abolition of the, and capitalism in favour of of the. Was practiced in and other places in the during the Spanish Civil War. Estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution. The economy of the former established a system based on market-based allocation, social ownership of the means of production and self-management within firms.

This system substituted Yugoslavia's Soviet-type central planning with a decentralised, self-managed system after reforms in 1953. The argues that 're-organising production so that workers become collectively self-directed at their work-sites' not only moves society beyond both capitalism and of the last century, but would also mark another milestone in human history, similar to earlier transitions out of slavery and feudalism. As an example, Wolff claims that is 'a stunningly successful alternative to the capitalist organisation of production'. State-directed economy. See also: State socialism can be used to classify any variety of socialist philosophies that advocates the ownership of the by the, either as a transitional stage between capitalism and socialism, or as an end-goal in itself. Typically it refers to a form of technocratic management, whereby technical specialists administer or manage economic enterprises on behalf of society (and the public interest) instead of workers' councils or workplace democracy.

A state-directed economy may refer to a type of mixed economy consisting of public ownership over large industries, as promoted by various Social democratic political parties during the 20th century. This ideology influenced the policies of the British Labour Party during Clement Attlee's administration. In the biography of the 1945 United Kingdom Labour Party Prime Minister, Francis Beckett states: '[T]he government. Wanted what would become known as a mixed economy'. Nationalisation in the United Kingdom was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e.

With compensation). Was a combination of major aircraft companies, and others. Was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including,, and, whereas the nationalisation of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.

Market socialism. Main article: Market socialism consists of publicly owned or cooperatively owned enterprises operating in a. It is a system that utilises the market and for the allocation and accounting of the, thereby retaining the process of. The profit generated would be used to directly remunerate employees, collectively sustain the enterprise or finance public institutions. In state-oriented forms of market socialism, in which state enterprises attempt to maximise profit, the profits can be used to fund government programs and services through a, eliminating or greatly diminishing the need for various forms of taxation that exist in capitalist systems. The neoclassical economist believed that a socialist economy based on state ownership of land and natural resources would provide a means of public finance to make income taxes unnecessary.

Yugoslavia implemented a market socialist economy based on cooperatives and worker self-management. Proudhon and his children, by, 1865 —, main theorist of and influential French socialist thinker is an and that advocates a society where each person might possess a, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labour in the. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a that holds that when labour or its product is sold, in exchange it ought to receive goods or services embodying 'the amount of labour necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility'. The current economic system in China is formally referred to as a.

It combines a large state sector that comprises the commanding heights of the economy, which are guaranteed their public ownership status by law, with a private sector mainly engaged in commodity production and light industry responsible from anywhere between 33% to over 70% of GDP generated in 2005. Although there has been a rapid expansion of private-sector activity since the 1980s, privatisation of state assets was virtually halted and were partially reversed in 2005. The current Chinese economy consists of 150 state-owned enterprises that report directly to China's central government. By 2008, these state-owned corporations had become increasingly dynamic and generated large increases in revenue for the state, resulting in a state-sector led recovery during the 2009 financial crises while accounting for most of China's economic growth.

However, the Chinese economic model is widely cited as a contemporary form of state capitalism, the major difference between Western capitalism and the Chinese model being the degree of state-ownership of shares in publicly listed corporations. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has adopted a similar model after the economic renovation, but slightly differs from the Chinese model in that the Vietnamese government retains firm control over the state sector and strategic industries, but allows for private-sector activity in commodity production. Socialists in, New York City on 1912 The major socialist political movements are described below. Independent socialist theorists, authors and academic supporters of socialism may not be represented in these movements.

Some political groups have called themselves socialist while holding views that some consider antithetical to socialism. The term 'socialist' has also been used by some politicians on the as an epithet against certain individuals who do not consider themselves to be socialists and against policies that are not considered socialist by their proponents.

There are many variations of socialism and as such there is no single definition encapsulating all of socialism. However, there have been common elements identified by scholars.

Main article: Anarchism is a that advocates often defined as voluntary institutions, but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-. Anarchism holds the to be undesirable, unnecessary or harmful. While anti-statism is central, some argue that anarchism entails opposing or in the conduct of human relations including, but not limited to, the state system. Advocate market socialism, and salaries based on the amount of time contributed to production, advocate a direct transition from capitalism to and a and worker's and the.

Democratic socialism. Main article: Modern democratic socialism is a broad political movement that seeks to promote the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system. Some democratic socialists support as a temporary measure to reform the current system, while others reject reformism in favour of more revolutionary methods. Modern social democracy emphasises a program of gradual legislative modification of capitalism in order to make it more equitable and humane, while the theoretical end goal of building a socialist society is either completely forgotten or redefined in a pro-capitalist way.

The two movements are widely similar both in terminology and in ideology, although there are a few key differences. The major difference between social democracy and democratic socialism is the object of their politics: contemporary social democrats support a and unemployment insurance as a means to 'humanise' capitalism, whereas democratic socialists seek to replace capitalism with a socialist economic system, arguing that any attempt to 'humanise' capitalism through regulations and welfare policies would distort the market and create economic contradictions. Democratic socialism generally refers to any political movement that seeks to establish an economy based on by and for the working class.

Democratic socialism is difficult to define and groups of scholars have radically different definitions for the term. Some definitions simply refer to all forms of socialism that follow an electoral, or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one. You can't talk about ending the slums without first saying profit must be taken out of slums. You're really tampering and getting on dangerous ground because you are messing with folk then. You are messing with captains of industry.

Now this means that we are treading in difficult water, because it really means that we are saying that something is wrong with capitalism. There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism. The first anarchist journal to use the term 'libertarian' was, Journal du Mouvement Social and it was published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by French anarcho-communist, while was the first recorded person to describe himself as 'libertarian' Libertarian socialism (sometimes called, and socialist libertarianism) is a group of political philosophies inside the movement that rejects socialism as centralised state ownership and control of the economy including criticism of, as well as the state itself. It emphasises of the workplace and, asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing institutions that control certain and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic.

Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in means of and or associations such as, citizens' assemblies,, and. Main article: is a broad concept involving an intertwining of the Christian religion with the politics and economic theories of socialism.

Is a term coined by various leaders to describe a more form of socialism. Muslim socialists believe that the teachings of the and are compatible with principles of and drawing inspiration from the early Medina welfare state established. Muslim socialists are more conservative than their western contemporaries and find their roots in, and. Islamic socialist leaders believe in democracy and deriving legitimacy from public as opposed to religious texts. Social democracy and liberal socialism. Main articles: and Social democracy is a political ideology which 'is derived from a socialist tradition of political thought.

Many social democrats refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists, and some use these terms interchangeably. Others have opined that there are clear differences between the three terms, and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term ‘social democracy’ only'. There are two main directions, either to establish, or to build a welfare state within the framework of the capitalist system. The first variant has officially its goal by establishing through and methods. In the second variant, social democracy becomes a policy regime involving a, schemes, support for publicly financed public services and a capitalist-based economy like a. It is often used in this manner to refer to the social models and economic policies prominent in Western and Northern Europe during the later half of the 20th century. It has been described by as 'hybrid' economics, an active collaboration of capitalist and socialist visions and while such systems are not perfect they tend to provide high standards of living.

Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people tend to live happier lives in societies rather than ones. Social democrats supporting the first variant advocate for a peaceful, evolutionary transition of the economy to socialism through social reform of capitalism. It asserts that the only acceptable constitutional form of government is under the. It promotes extending democratic decision-making beyond political democracy to include to guarantee employees and other economic stakeholders sufficient rights of.

It supports a that opposes the excesses of capitalism such as, and of various groups, while rejecting both a totally or a fully. Common social democratic policies include advocacy of universal social rights to attain universally accessible such as,, and other services, including and care for the elderly.

Social democracy is connected with the trade union and supports for workers. Most social democratic parties are affiliated with the. Liberal socialism is a socialist that includes principles within it.

Liberal socialism does not have the goal of abolishing with a, instead it supports a mixed economy that includes both and in capital goods. Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed market economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of and opposes an entirely unregulated economy. It considers both and to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other. Principles that can be described as 'liberal socialist' have been based upon or developed by the following philosophers:,,,, and. Other important liberal socialist figures include Guido Calogero,,, and. Liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics. Socialism and modern progressive social movements.

And, 1910 is a branch of that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and sources of women's. 's foundation is laid by in his analysis of gender oppression in (1884). 's Woman under Socialism (1879), the 'single work dealing with sexuality most widely read by rank-and-file members of the (SPD)'. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both and were against the of men and supported a revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible. As their movement already had the most radical demands in women's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin and, counterposed Marxism against rather than trying to combine them. Began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists and In the, an anarcha-feminist group, ('Free Women') linked to the, organised to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.

In 1972, the published 'Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement', which is believed to be the first to use the term 'socialist feminism' in publication. Main article: Syndicalism is a social movement that operates through industrial trade unions and rejects and the use of establishment politics to establish or promote socialism. They reject using state power to construct a socialist society, favouring strategies such as the. Syndicalists advocate a socialist economy based on federated unions or syndicates of workers who own and manage the means of production.

Some Marxist currents advocate syndicalism, such as. Is a which views as a method for workers in to gain control of an economy and with that control influence broader society. The largely orchestrated by the anarcho-syndicalist trade union during the offers an historical example. The is an international federation of and initiatives. See also • • • • • • • • Notes.