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Jean Piaget, founder of constructivism Constructivism is a philosophical viewpoint about the nature of. Specifically, it represents an stance. There are many 'flavors' of constructivism, but one prominent theorist known for his constructivist views is, who focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas. He considered himself to be a, which means he was interested in the genesis of knowledge. His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is occurring with an individual as opposed to development that is influenced by other humans [ ]. Views more focused on human development in the context of the social world include the sociocultural or socio-historical perspective of and the perspectives of Mikhail Bakhtin, and; Brown, Collins and Duguid; Newman, Griffin and Cole, and. The concept of constructivism has influenced a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education and the history of science.

During its infancy, constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Jean Piaget called these systems of knowledge schemes. Schemes are not to be confused with 'schema,' a term that comes from, which is from information-processing perspectives on human cognition. Whereas Piaget's schemes are content-free, schemata (the plural of schema) are concepts; for example, most humans have a schema for 'grandmother' or 'egg' or 'magnet.' Constructivism does not refer to a specific, although it is often confused with, an educational theory developed by, inspired by constructivist and ideas of Piaget.

Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has had wide-ranging impact on and in education, and is an underlying theme of many movements. [ ] Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research contradicting those results.

Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • History [ ] Earlier educational philosophies did not place much value on what would become constructivist ideas; children's play and exploration was seen as aimless and of little importance. [ ] Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views; he saw play as an important and necessary part of the student's and provided scientific evidence for his views. Today, constructivist theories are influential throughout the formal and informal learning sectors. In, constructivist theories inform exhibit design. One good example of constructivist learning in a non-formal setting is the Investigate Centre. [ ] Here visitors are encouraged to explore a collection of real natural history specimens, to practice some scientific skills and make discoveries for themselves.

Writers who influenced constructivism include: • (1859–1952) • (1870–1952) • (1893–1952) • (1896–1980) • (1896–1934) • (1911–2002) • (1905–1967) • (1915–2016) • (1916–2001) • (1921–2007) • (1917–2010) • (1921–) • (1928–) For more detailed information on the philosophy of the construction of human knowledge, see. Individual [ ] The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which information from the environment and ideas from the individual interact and result in internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of assimilation and accommodation that are key in this interaction as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals assimilate new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences.

Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure. It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.

However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote, or learning by doing. There are many critics of 'learning by doing' (a.k.a. 'discovery learning') as an instructional strategy (e.g.

See the criticisms below). While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy '. To us it would appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.(p.4)'. Constructivist learning intervention [ ] The nature of the learner [ ] Social constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997).

The importance of the background and culture of the learner [ ] Social constructivisms or socioculturalism encourage the learner or learners to arrive at his or her version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded. Historical developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world.

From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process (Wertsch 1997). Responsibility for learning [ ] Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner (Glasersfeld, 1989).

Thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

The Harkness discussion method [ ] It is called the 'Harkness' discussion method because it was developed at with funds donated in the 1930s. This is also named after the Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle, motivating and controlling their own discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible. Perhaps the teacher's only function is to observe, although he/she might begin or shift or even direct a discussion.

The students get it rolling, direct it, and focus it. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work.

They all participate, but not in a competitive way. Rather, they all share in the responsibility and the goals, much as any members share in any team sport. Although the goals of any discussion will change depending upon what's under discussion, some goals will always be the same: to illuminate the subject, to unravel its mysteries, to interpret and share and learn from other points of view, to piece together the puzzle using everyone's contribution. Discussion skills are important.

Everyone must be aware of how to get this discussion rolling and keep it rolling and interesting. Just as in any sport, a number of skills are necessary to work on and use at appropriate times. Everyone is expected to contribute by using these skills. The motivation for learning [ ] Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the learner's confidence in his or her potential for learning.

These feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). This links up with 's ' (Vygotsky 1978) where learners are challenged within close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges. The role of the instructor [ ] Instructors as facilitators [ ] According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995).

Whereas a teacher gives a lecture that covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process.

The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). Cyberview X-Sf Driver For Windows 7 on this page. This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than that of a teacher (Brownstein 2001).

A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience 'in mid-air' by taking the initiative to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value. The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking (Di Vesta, 1987).

While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach. Main article: If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process of collective knowledge-construction will be set up. The importance of context [ ] The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself (McMahon 1997).

Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is 'the assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains' (Di Vesta 1987:208). Knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is that of authentic or, where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown et al. Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to 'enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship' (Ackerman 1996:25). Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests.

Here the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000). According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development.

The selection, scope, and sequencing of the subject matter [ ] Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole [ ] Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be discovered as an (McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987). This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented (Brown et al.

The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions (Ackerman 1996). Engaging and challenging the learner [ ] Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers) (Vygotsky 1978). Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role in development.

To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning. Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem itself (Derry 1999).

Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been extensively used in curricula. It is important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners (Rhodes and Bellamy 1999).

Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The and contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned (Brown et al.

1989; Ackerman 1996). The structuredness of the learning process [ ] It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings.

A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth. In adult learning [ ] Constructivist ideas have been used to inform. Whereas pedagogy usually applies to the education of children, educators of adults often speak instead of.

Methods must take account of differences in learning, due to the fact that adults have many more experiences and previously existing neurological structures. Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning, diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for achieving the objectives, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests. Personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper understanding of underlying concepts are some of the intersections between emphases in constructivism and adult learning principles. Pedagogies based on constructivism [ ].

— Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching by Kirschner, Sweller, Clark Mayer (2004) argues against discovery-based teaching techniques and provides an extensive review to support this argument. Mayer's arguments are against pure discovery, and are not specifically aimed at constructivism: 'Nothing in this article should be construed as arguing against the view of learning as knowledge construction or against using hands-on inquiry or group discussion that promotes the process of knowledge construction in learners. The main conclusion I draw from the three research literatures I have reviewed is that it would be a mistake to interpret the current constructivist view of learning as a rationale for reviving pure discovery as a method of instruction.' Mayer's concern is how one applies discovery-based teaching techniques.

He provides empirical research as evidence that discovery-based teaching techniques are inadequate. Here he cites this literature and makes his point 'For example, a recent replication is research showing that students learn to become better at solving mathematics problems when they study worked-out examples rather than when they solely engage in hands-on problem solving (Sweller, 1999).

Today's proponents of discovery methods, who claim to draw their support from constructivist philosophy, are making inroads into educational practice. Yet a dispassionate review of the relevant research literature shows that discovery-based practice is not as effective as guided discovery.' (Mayer, 2004, p. 18) Mayer's point is that people often misuse constructivism to promote pure discovery-based teaching techniques. He proposes that the instructional design recommendations of constructivism are too often aimed at discovery-based practice (Mayer, 2004). Sweller (1988) found evidence that practice by novices during early schema acquisition, distracts these learners with unnecessary search-based activity, when the learner's attention should be focused on understanding (acquiring schemas). The study by Kirschner et al. From which the quote at the beginning of this section was taken has been widely cited and is important for showing the limits of minimally-guided instruction.

Hmelo-Silver et al. Responded, pointing out that Kirschner et al. Conflated constructivist teaching techniques such as inquiry learning with 'discovery learning'. (See the preceding two of this article.) This would agree with Mayer's viewpoint that even though constructivism as a theory and teaching techniques incorporating guidance are likely valid applications of this theory, nevertheless a tradition of misunderstanding has led to some question 'pure discovery' techniques. The math wars and discovery-based teaching techniques [ ]. Main article: The controversy in the United States is an example of the type of heated debate that sometimes follows the implementation of constructivist-inspired curricula in schools.

In the 1990s, mathematics textbooks based on new largely informed by constructivism were developed and promoted with government support. Although constructivist theory does not require eliminating instruction entirely, some textbooks seemed to recommend this extreme. Some parents and mathematicians protested the design of textbooks that omitted or de-emphasized instruction of standard mathematical methods. Supporters responded that the methods were to be eventually discovered under direction by the teacher, but since this was missing or unclear, many insisted the textbooks were designed to deliberately eliminate instruction of standard methods. In one commonly adopted text, the standard formula for the area of a circle is to be derived in the classroom, but not actually printed in the student textbook as is explained by the developers of: 'The student role of formulating, representing, clarifying, communicating, and reflecting on ideas leads to an increase in learning.

If the format of the texts included many worked examples, the student role would then become merely reproducing these examples with small modifications.' Similarly, this approach has been applied to reading with and inquiry-based science that emphasizes the importance of devising rather than just performing hands-on experiments as early as the elementary grades (traditionally done by research scientists), rather than studying facts. In other areas of curriculum such as social studies and writing are relying more on 'higher order thinking skills' rather than memorization of dates, grammar or spelling rules or reciting correct answers. Advocates of this approach counter that the constructivism does not require going to extremes, that in fact teachable moments should regularly infuse the experience with the more traditional teaching. The primary differentiation from the traditional approach being that the engagement of the students in their learning makes them more receptive to learning things at an appropriate time, rather than on a preset schedule. Importance of structure in constructivist learning environments [ ] During the 1990s, several theorists began to study the of novices (those with little or no prior knowledge of the subject matter) during problem solving.

Cognitive load theory was applied in several contexts (Paas, 1992; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Chandler and Sweller, 1992; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Cooper & Sweller, 1987). Based on the results of their research, these authors do not support the idea of allowing novices to interact with ill-structured learning environments. Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner to discover problem solutions (Jonassen, 1997). Jonassen (1997) also suggested that novices be taught with 'well-structured' learning environments. Stronghold 2 Ita Iso Torrent. Jonassen (1997) also proposed well-designed, well-structured learning environments provide scaffolding for problem-solving. Finally both Sweller and Jonassen support problem-solving scenarios for more advanced learners (Jonassen, 1997; luga, Ayres, Chandler, and Sweller, 2003).

Sweller and his associates even suggest well-structured learning environments, like those provided by worked examples, are not effective for those with more experience—this was later described as the ' (Kalyuga et al., 2003). Cognitive load theorists suggest worked examples initially, with a gradual introduction of problem solving scenarios; this is described as the 'guidance fading effect' (Renkl, Atkinson, Maier, and Staley, 2002; Sweller, 2003). Each of these ideas provides more evidence for Anderson's ACT-R framework (Clark & Elen, 2006). This framework suggests learning can begin with studying examples. Finally Mayer states: 'Thus, the contribution of psychology is to help move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and unproductive world of educational ideology—which sometimes hides under the banner of various versions of constructivism—to the sharp and productive world of theory-based research on how people learn.' (Mayer, 2004, p. 18).

Confusion between constructivist and maturationist views [ ] Many people confuse constructivist with views. The constructivist (or cognitive-developmental) stream 'is based on the idea that the or process of development and learning through the student's active construction should be facilitated and promoted by adults' (DeVries et al., 2002).

Whereas, 'The romantic maturationist stream is based on the idea that the student's naturally occurring development should be allowed to flower without adult interventions in a permissive environment' (DeVries et al., 2002). In other words, adults play an active role in guiding learning in constructivism, while they are expected to allow children to guide themselves in maturationism. Radical constructivism [ ] developed by coupling Piaget's theory of learning and philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge with Kant's rejection of an objective reality independent of human perception or reason. Radical constructivism does not view knowledge as an attempt to generate ideas that match an independent, objective reality. Instead, theories and knowledge about the world, as generated by our senses and reason, either fit within the constraints of whatever reality may exist and, thus, are viable or do not and are not viable. As a theory of education, radical constructivism emphasizes the experiences of the learner, differences between learners and the importance of uncertainty.

Relational constructivism [ ] can be perceived as a relational consequence of the radical constructivism. In contrary to social constructivism, it picks up the epistemological threads and maintains the radical constructivist idea that humans cannot overcome their limited conditions of reception.

In spite of the subjectivity of human constructions of reality, relational constructivism focusses on the relational conditions applying to human perceptional processes. Social constructivism [ ] In recent decades, constructivist theorists have extended the traditional focus on individual learning to address collaborative and social dimensions of learning. It is possible to see as a bringing together of aspects of the work of Piaget with that of Bruner and Vygotsky (Wood 1998: 39). Communal constructivism [ ] The concept Communal constructivism was developed by Leask and Younie (2001a) in 1995 through their research on the which demonstrated the value of experts collaborating to push the boundaries of knowledge i.e. Communal construction of new knowledge between experts rather than social construction of knowledge as described by Vygotsky where there is a learner to teacher scaffolding relationship. 'Communal constructivism' as a concept applies to those situations in which there is currently no expert knowledge or indeed research to underpin knowledge in an area.

'Communal constructivism' refers specifically to the process of experts working together to create, record and publish new knowledge in emerging areas. In the seminal European SchoolNet research where for the first time academics were testing out how the internet could support classroom practice and pedagogy, experts from a number of countries set up test situations to generate and understand new possibilities for educational practice. Bryn Holmes in 2001 applied this to student learning as described in an early paper, 'in this, students will not simply pass through a course like through a but instead leave their own imprint in the learning process.'

Influence on computer science [ ] Constructivism has influenced the course of programming and computer science. Some famous have been created, wholly or in part, for use, to support the theory of Seymour Papert.

These languages have been, and. Is the best known of them. Constructivism has also informed the design of interactive systems. See also [ ] • • • • (CHAT) • • • • • • • • References [ ].

Cultural intelligence (CQ) represents a promising advancement in the area of cross-cultural training and management. Experiential approaches for CQ development have been proposed as highly effective; however, there is a lack of CQ-specific approaches in the management literature. This work overviews the concept of cultural intelligence and its relevance to management then highlights an experiential CQ education process and framework. The process, designed to increase CQ capacity by engaging in a new cultural contact experience, was initially developed with two cohorts that included a total of 743 management education participants. Details of the process, supporting theory, related teaching materials, participant evaluation, and participant CQ development indicators are presented and future research directions are discussed.